When: 19–21 August 1991 (only 3 days)
Official name: The State Committee on the State of Emergency (ГКЧП – GKChP in Russian) Result: Total failure → accelerated the collapse of the USSR just 4 months later
Why did it happen?
By mid-1991 the Soviet Union was falling apart:
- Gorbachev’s perestroika and glasnost had unleashed nationalism in the Baltic states, Ukraine, Georgia, etc.
- On 20 August 1991, a new “Union Treaty” was supposed to be signed that would turn the USSR into a much looser federation (basically giving republics much more power).
- Hardline communists in the Party, KGB, Army and government were terrified this would be the final death blow to the Soviet Union.
Who organized the coup?
The eight members of the “State Committee on the State of Emergency” (GKChP):
| Name | Position |
|---|---|
| Gennady Yanayev | Vice-President (declared himself “Acting President”) |
| Vladimir Kryuchkov | Head of the KGB |
| Dmitry Yazov | Minister of Defence |
| Valentin Pavlov | Prime Minister |
| Boris Pugo | Minister of Interior (later committed suicide) |
| Oleg Baklanov | Deputy head of Defence Council |
| Vasily Starodubtsev | Head of the Farmers’ Union |
| Alexander Tizyakov | Industrial boss |
They claimed Gorbachev was “ill” and unable to govern (in reality they had placed him under house arrest at his dacha in Foros in Crimea).
What did they do?
19 August (Day 1)
- Tanks and troops rolled into Moscow
- Tchaikovsky’s Swan Lake was broadcast non-stop on all TV channels (the classic Soviet signal that something serious was happening)
- A press conference was held where Yanayev’s hands were visibly shaking — the footage destroyed any impression of strength
20–21 August (Days 2–3)
- Boris Yeltsin (President of the Russian republic) climbed on a tank outside the Russian parliament (“White House”) and called the coup illegal
- Hundreds of thousands of ordinary Muscovites came out to defend the White House, building barricades
- Some army units (notably the Taman and Kantemirov divisions) refused orders to storm the building or shoot civilians
- By the evening of 21 August the coup plotters lost their nerve and began fleeing Moscow
22 August
- Coup leaders arrested (those who didn’t commit suicide) were arrested
- Gorbachev returned to Moscow — but he came back to a different country: real power now belonged to Yeltsin and the republics
Immediate Consequences
- Communist Party of the Soviet Union was banned in Russia (August 1991)
- Gorbachev’s authority collapsed; he resigned as General Secretary the day he returned
- The Baltic states were recognized as independent within weeks
- Yeltsin and the leaders of Ukraine and Belarus met in Belavezha Forest in December 1991 and dissolved the USSR
Why did the coup fail so quickly?
- No clear plan or popular support
- Refusal of many army and KGB units to use force against civilians
- Yeltsin’s decisive public resistance (the tank speech became iconic)
- The age of television: people saw the plotters’ incompetence live
In short: the August Coup was the desperate last gasp of the Soviet hardliners. Instead of saving the USSR, it killed it — and handed full power to Boris Yeltsin and the forces that created today’s independent Russian Federation.
The Novo-Ogaryovo Process (1990–1991):
Gorbachev’s Last Attempt to Save the Soviet Union as a Federation
What it was The Novo-Ogaryovo process was a series of closed-door negotiations (spring–summer 1991) at the Soviet presidential dacha “Novo-Ogaryovo” (20 km west of Moscow). Its goal was to draft and sign a new Union Treaty that would transform the USSR from a unitary state into a genuine federation (or even confederation) called the Union of Sovereign States (Союз Суверенных Государств).
Gorbachev hoped this would stop the “parade of sovereignties” and prevent the total disintegration of the country.
Timeline & Key Stages
| Date | Event |
|---|---|
| June–November 1990 | First informal talks; republics demand real power |
| 23 April 1991 | “9 + 1” Agreement signed in Novo-Ogaryovo (Gorbachev + leaders of 9 republics) |
| June–July 1991 | Multiple drafting sessions at the dacha; text gradually softened |
| 23 July 1991 | Final draft completed |
| 20 August 1991 | Planned signing date of the new Union Treaty |
| 19–21 August 1991 | August Coup → the treaty was never signed |
| December 1991 | USSR dissolved anyway (Belavezha Accords) |
The “9 + 1” Formula
- “1” = Mikhail Gorbachev (centre)
- “9” = the republics that agreed to stay and negotiate: Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Azerbaijan (Armenia participated sometimes; the three Baltic states, Georgia and Moldova refused entirely)
What the New Treaty Proposed (July 1991 draft)
- New name: Union of Sovereign States (ССГ)
- A very weak centre: foreign policy, defence, currency, and little else
- Republics would have their own armies, foreign ministries, and full control over economy and resources
- Republics could freely secede (with a referendum)
- The word “Socialist” was dropped from the country’s name
- The Communist Party would lose its monopoly
In short, it was basically turning the USSR into something like today’s European Union — a soft confederation.
Why the Hardliners Panicked
The August 1991 coup plotters (GKChP) explicitly said in their first statement: “We will not allow the signing of the treaty that dismembers the country.” They believed that after 20 August the central government would become a fiction and the USSR would irreversibly collapse.
Fate of the Treaty
- The coup failed.
- After the coup, Ukraine refused to sign anything at all (referendum on 1 December 1991 gave 92 % for full independence).
- On 8 December 1991 Yeltsin, Kravchuk and Shushkevich met in Belavezha and declared the USSR “ceasing to exist” — without even informing Gorbachev.
Summary Table
| Feature | Old USSR (1922–1991) | Novo-Ogaryovo Draft (1991) |
|---|---|---|
| Official name | Union of Soviet Socialist Republics | Union of Sovereign States |
| Central power | Very strong | Extremely weak (symbolic president) |
| Republics’ rights | Very limited | Almost full sovereignty |
| Right to secede | Theoretically yes, practically impossible | Explicit and easy |
| Army | Single Red Army | Republics could have own armies |
| Communist Party monopoly | Yes | No |
| Signing date | — | Planned 20 Aug 1991 → cancelled |
Conclusion The Novo-Ogaryovo process was the most serious and most far-reaching attempt to preserve some kind of union voluntarily. It came extremely close to success — the text was ready, the date was set. The August Coup destroyed it in three days, and four months later the Soviet Union was gone forever. Ironically, the very liberalization Gorbachev introduced to save the USSR gave the republics (especially Russia and Ukraine) the tools to bury it.
The Belavezha Accords (8 December 1991)
The legal and political act that formally ended the Soviet Union
Basic Facts
- Date signed: 8 December 1991
- Place: Viskuli government hunting lodge in Belavezha Forest (Białowieża Forest), Belarus
- Signatories (the “Three Slavs”):
- Boris Yeltsin – President of the Russian SFSR
- Leonid Kravchuk – President of Ukraine
- Stanislav Shushkevich – Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of Belarus
- Key outcome: The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) ceased to exist. It was replaced by the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) – a loose, voluntary association with almost no real power.
Why They Met in Secret in the Forest
After the failed August 1991 coup:
- Gorbachev was still trying to save a renewed Union (Novo-Ogaryovo process).
- Ukraine held an independence referendum on 1 December 1991 → 92.3 % voted for full independence and elected Leonid Kravchuk president.
- Kravchuk made it clear: Ukraine would never sign nothing that kept even a symbolic union with Moscow.
- Yeltsin realized that Gorbachev’s Union Treaty was dead and that Russia would be left paying all the bills for a dying centre.
- So the three Slavic republic leaders met in extreme secrecy (even their own security services were only told at the last minute) to finish the USSR once and for all.
What the Accords Actually Said (main points of the short document)
- “The USSR as a subject of international law and a geopolitical reality ceases its existence.”
- The three republics establish the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), open to all former Soviet republics.
- They guarantee fulfilment of the USSR’s international treaties and debts (to avoid chaos with nuclear weapons, foreign debt, embassies, etc.).
- Borders between the three republics are recognized as international borders.
- Nuclear weapons remain under unified command for the time being (this was critical – 90 % of Soviet nuclear arsenal was on the territory of Russia, Ukraine, Belarus and Kazakhstan).
The entire agreement was only three pages long.
Immediate Sequence of Events
8 Dec evening – Agreement signed in Belavezha 8 Dec night – Yeltsin phoned U.S. President George H. W. Bush before even informing Gorbachev 9 Dec – Gorbachev was informed; he called the accords “illegal” and refused to accept them 14 Dec – The document was ratified by the parliaments of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus 21 Dec – In Alma-Ata (Kazakhstan), eight more republics joined the CIS → Alma-Ata Protocol 25 Dec 1991, 19:32 Moscow time – Gorbachev appeared on TV, announced his resignation, and the Soviet flag was lowered over the Kremlin for the last time. The Russian tricolour was raised in its place.
Quick Comparison Table
| Feature | USSR (until 8 Dec 1991) | After Belavezha Accords |
|---|---|---|
| Official state | Union of Soviet Socialist Republics | No longer exists |
| Replacement organisation | — | Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) |
| Central government | Gorbachev + Soviet ministries | Dissolved |
| Nuclear control | Unified under Gorbachev | Temporarily unified, later transferred to Russia |
| Number of independent states | 1 (with 15 republics inside) | 15 sovereign countries |
| Legal basis for dissolution | None (1922 Union Treaty violated) | Belavezha + Alma-Ata declarations |
Long-term Meaning
- The Belavezha Accords were the real death certificate of the Soviet Union.
- They were technically unconstitutional (only the Congress of People’s Deputies could dissolve the USSR), but nobody could stop them after the August coup had destroyed the old power structures.
- Russia (the Russian Federation) declared itself the “continuer state” of the USSR (kept the UN Security Council seat, foreign debt, embassies, etc.).
- For the first time since 1654 (Pereyaslavl Agreement), Russia and Ukraine were fully separate states.
In short: three men in a remote hunting lodge on one winter weekend quietly ended the world’s largest country and closed the 74-year Soviet chapter of history.
The Alma-Ata Protocol (21 December 1991)
The final burial of the Soviet Union and the official birth certificate of 11 new independent states
Basic Facts
- Date: 21 December 1991
- Place: Alma-Ata (now Almaty), capital of Kazakhstan
- Signed by: 11 republics (all remaining Soviet republics except the three Baltic states and Georgia)
- Full name: Protocol to the Agreement Establishing the Commonwealth of Independent States (and the accompanying Alma-Ata Declaration)
- Effect: Expanded the Belavezha Accords from 3 to 11 countries and definitively liquidated the USSR
Who Signed
| Republic | Leader who signed |
|---|---|
| Russia | Boris Yeltsin |
| Ukraine | Leonid Kravchuk |
| Belarus | Stanislav Shushkevich |
| Kazakhstan | Nursultan Nazarbayev (hosted the meeting) |
| Uzbekistan | Islam Karimov |
| Turkmenistan | Saparmurat Niyazov |
| Kyrgyzstan | Askar Akayev |
| Tajikistan | Rakhmon Nabiyev |
| Armenia | Levon Ter-Petrosyan |
| Azerbaijan | Ayaz Mutalibov |
| Moldova | Mircea Snegur |
→ The three Baltic republics (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania) had already been recognized as independent. → Georgia joined the CIS only in 1993 (and left again in 2008).
Key Provisions of the Alma-Ata Documents
| Point | What was agreed |
|---|---|
| 1. USSR ceases to exist | Explicitly confirmed the Belavezha decision for all 11 republics |
| 2. CIS is created | Loose coordinating body, no supranational powers |
| 3. Russia is the “continuer state” of USSR | Keeps UN Security Council permanent seat, embassies, foreign debt, etc. |
| 4. Nuclear weapons | All strategic nuclear forces transferred to unified command under Yeltsin; tactical weapons to be moved to Russia by July 1992 |
| 5. Borders | Existing republican borders become international state borders |
| 6. Armed forces | Each republic creates its own national army (except Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, Kazakhstan temporarily kept unified nuclear command) |
| 7. Economic space | Commitment to keep a common economic space, single ruble zone (this collapsed within months) |
| 8. Membership open | Any former Soviet republic (and even other states) can join CIS |
Timeline – The Last Days of the USSR
| Date | Event |
|---|---|
| 8 Dec 1991 | Belavezha Accords (Russia, Ukraine, Belarus dissolve USSR) |
| 12 Dec | Russian parliament ratifies Belavezha |
| 21 Dec | Alma-Ata Protocol – 11 republics join CIS and confirm USSR is dead |
| 25 Dec 1991, 19:00 | Gorbachev resigns on live TV |
| 25 Dec 1991, 19:32 | Soviet flag lowered over Kremlin; Russian tricolour raised |
| 26 Dec 1991 | Soviet parliament (Council of Republics) formally declares USSR dissolved |
Practical Consequences
- The Soviet Union disappeared from the political map in exactly 17 days (8–25 December 1991).
- 11 brand-new independent countries appeared overnight.
- Russia inherited:
- Permanent UN Security Council seat
- Almost all Soviet foreign embassies
- Almost all foreign debt
- The entire Soviet gold reserves and diamond fund
- Control over space programme, nuclear arsenal, etc.
- The ruble remained legal tender in most CIS countries until 1993–1994, then each introduced its own currency.
Summary in One Sentence
The Alma-Ata Protocol was the moment when the remaining Soviet republics formally accepted the death of the USSR (already pronounced in Belavezha) and agreed on the basic rules for peaceful divorce — above all, that Russia would inherit the Soviet “crown” and the nuclear button.
With the signing in Alma-Ata on 21 December 1991 and Gorbachev’s resignation four days later, the Soviet Union ceased to exist not with a bang, but with two quiet signatures in a forest lodge and a conference hall in Kazakhstan.
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